@misc{13233,
  abstract     = {{Atranones are secondary metabolites produced by Stachybotrys chartarum, a mold frequently found in water-damaged indoor environments. In contrast to the well-characterized and highly toxic macrocyclic trichothecenes, atranones have received relatively limited scientific attention. Approximately 60% of S. chartarum isolates from indoor environments produce atranones, while 40% form macrocyclic trichothecenes. No strain has been shown to produce both, indicating that the biosynthetic pathways for these two mycotoxin classes are mutually exclusive. Atranones are dolabellane-like diterpenoids synthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate through multiple enzymatic steps encoded by a specific core gene cluster. While the genetic structure of this cluster has been elucidated, its regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. Notably, although atranone-producing S. chartarum strains have been isolated from indoor settings, no study has yet confirmed the actual production of atranones in indoor environments, leaving the question of real-world exposure unresolved. Experimental studies in cell cultures and animal models indicate that atranones possess pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic properties, including the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Atranone Q has demonstrated antitumor activity against osteosarcoma cells in vitro, and more recently identified derivatives such as stachatranone and stachybatranone have shown preliminary cardioprotective effects under ischemic conditions. However, these pharmacological effects remain exploratory and require further validation in in vivo models. Major knowledge gaps concern the environmental triggers for atranone biosynthesis, their regulation, actual presence in built environments, and potential health risks. These areas represent key priorities for future research. }},
  author       = {{Dabisch-Ruthe, Mareike and Pfannebecker, Jens and Straubinger, Reinhard K. and Ebel, Frank and Ulrich, Sebastian}},
  booktitle    = {{Mycotoxin Research}},
  issn         = {{1867-1632}},
  keywords     = {{Atranone, Secondary metabolite, Stachybotrys, Stachatranone, Stachybatranone}},
  publisher    = {{Springer}},
  title        = {{{Atranone-an underestimated secondary metabolite?}}},
  doi          = {{10.1007/s12550-025-00609-x}},
  year         = {{2025}},
}

@misc{12945,
  abstract     = {{Stachybotrys chartarum is a toxigenic fungus that is frequently isolated from damp building materials or improperly stored forage. Macrocyclic trichothecenes and in particular satratoxins are the most potent mycotoxins known to be produced by this fungus. Exposure of humans or animals to these secondary metabolites can be associated with severe health problems. To assess the pathogenic potential of S. chartarum isolates, it is essential to cultivate them under conditions that reliably promote toxin production. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) was reported to be the optimal nutrition medium for satratoxin production. In this study, the growth of S. chartarum genotype S strains on PDA from two manufacturers led to divergent results, namely, well-grown and sporulating cultures with high satratoxin concentrations (20.8 ± 0.4 µg/cm2) versus cultures with sparse sporulation and low satratoxin production (0.3 ± 0.1 µg/cm2). This finding is important for any attempt to identify toxigenic S. chartarum isolates. Further experiments performed with the two media provided strong evidence for a link between satratoxin production and sporulation. A comparison of three-point and one-point cultures grown on the two types of PDA, furthermore, demonstrated an inter-colony communication that influences both sporulation and mycotoxin production of S. chartarum genotype S strains.}},
  author       = {{Tribelhorn, Katharina and Twarużek, Magdalena and Soszczyńska, Ewelina and Rau, Jörg and Baschien, Christiane and Straubinger, Reinhard K. and Ebel, Frank and Ulrich, Sebastian}},
  booktitle    = {{Toxins}},
  issn         = {{2072-6651}},
  keywords     = {{Stachybotrys chartarum genotype S, sporulation, satratoxins, macrocyclic trichothecenes, inter-colony communication}},
  number       = {{8}},
  publisher    = {{MDPI}},
  title        = {{{Production of Satratoxin G and H Is Tightly Linked to Sporulation in Stachybotrys chartarum}}},
  doi          = {{10.3390/toxins14080515}},
  volume       = {{14}},
  year         = {{2022}},
}

@misc{12947,
  abstract     = {{Stachybotrys chartarum is frequently isolated from damp building materials or improperly stored animal forage. Human and animal exposure to the secondary metabolites of this mold is linked to severe health effects. The mutually exclusive production of either satratoxins or atranones defines the chemotypes A and S. Based upon the genes (satratoxin cluster, SC1-3, sat or atranone cluster, AC1, atr) that are supposed to be essential for satratoxin and atranone production, S. chartarum can furthermore be divided into three genotypes: the S-type possessing all sat- but no atr-genes, the A-type lacking the sat- but harboring all atr-genes, and the H-type having only certain sat- and all atr-genes. We analyzed the above-mentioned gene clusters and their flanking regions to shed light on the evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, we performed a deep re-sequencing and LC-MS/MS (Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry) analysis. We propose a first model for the evolution of the S. chartarum genotypes. We assume that genotype H represents the most ancient form. A loss of the AC1 and the concomitant acquisition of the SC2 led to the emergence of the genotype S. According to our model, the genotype H also developed towards genotype A, a process that was accompanied by a loss of SC1 and SC3.}},
  author       = {{Ulrich, Sebastian and Lang, Katharina and Niessen, Ludwig and Baschien, Christiane and Kosicki, Robert and Twarużek, Magdalena and Straubinger, Reinhard K. and Ebel, Frank}},
  booktitle    = {{Journal of Fungi}},
  issn         = {{2309-608X}},
  keywords     = {{Stachybotrys, genome, macrocyclic trichothecene, atranone}},
  number       = {{4}},
  publisher    = {{MDPI AG}},
  title        = {{{The Evolution of the Satratoxin and Atranone Gene Clusters of Stachybotrys chartarum}}},
  doi          = {{10.3390/jof8040340}},
  volume       = {{8}},
  year         = {{2022}},
}

@misc{12952,
  abstract     = {{Straw is the main by-product of grain production, used as bedding material and animal feed. If produced or stored under adverse hygienic conditions, straw is prone to the growth of filamentous fungi. Some of them, e.g. Aspergillus, Fusarium and Stachybotrys spp. are well-known mycotoxin producers. Since studies on mycotoxins in straw are scarce, 192 straw samples (wheat n = 80; barley n = 79; triticale n = 12; oat n = 11; rye n = 12) were collected across Germany within the German official feed surveillance and screened for the presence of 21 mycotoxins. The following mycotoxins (positive samples for at least one mycotoxin n = 184) were detected: zearalenone (n = 86, 6.0–785 μg/kg), nivalenol (n = 51, 30–2,600 μg/kg), deoxynivalenol (n = 156, 20–24,000 μg/kg), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (n = 34, 20–2,400 μg/kg), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (n = 16, 40–340 μg/kg), scirpentriol (n = 14, 40–680 μg/kg), T-2 toxin (n = 67, 10–250 μg/kg), HT-2 toxin (n = 92, 20–800 μg/kg), T-2 tetraol (n = 13, 70–480 μg/kg). 15-monoacetoxyscirpenol (30 μg/kg) and T-2 triol (60 μg/kg) were only detected in one barley sample. Macrocyclic trichothecenes (satratoxin G, F, roridin E, and verrucarin J) were also found in only one barley sample (quantified as roridin A equivalent: total 183 μg/kg). The occurrence of stachybotrylactam was monitored for the first time in four samples (n = 4, 0.96–7.4 μg/kg). Fusarenon-X, 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol, satratoxin H and roridin-L2 were not detectable in the samples. The results indicate a non-negligible contribution of straw to oral and possibly inhalation exposure to mycotoxins of animals or humans handling contaminated straw.}},
  author       = {{Ulrich, Sebastian and Gottschalk, Christoph and Biermaier, Barbara and Bahlinger, Eunike and Twarużek, Magdalena and Asmussen, Sarah and Schollenberger, Margit and Valenta, Hana and Ebel, Frank and Dänicke, Sven}},
  booktitle    = {{Archives of animal nutrition = Archiv für Tierernährung}},
  issn         = {{1477-2817}},
  keywords     = {{Fusarium, mycotoxins, stachybotrylactam, stachybotrys, straw, trichothecenes, zearalenone}},
  number       = {{2}},
  pages        = {{105--120}},
  publisher    = {{Taylor & Francis }},
  title        = {{{Occurrence of type A, B and D trichothecenes, zearalenone and stachybotrylactam in straw}}},
  doi          = {{10.1080/1745039x.2021.1877075}},
  volume       = {{75}},
  year         = {{2021}},
}

@misc{12956,
  abstract     = {{Stachybotrys (S.) chartarum had been linked to severe health problems in humans and animals, which occur after exposure to the toxic secondary metabolites of this mold. S. chartarum had been isolated from different environmental sources, ranging from culinary herbs and improperly stored fodder to damp building materials. To access the pathogenic potential of isolates, it is essential to analyze them under defined conditions that allow for the production of their toxic metabolites. All Stachybotrys species are assumed to produce the immunosuppressive phenylspirodrimanes, but the highly cytotoxic macrocyclic trichothecenes are exclusively generated by the genotype S of S. chartarum. In this study, we have analyzed four genotype S strains initially isolated from three different habitats. We grew them on five commonly used media (malt-extract-agar, glucose-yeast-peptone-agar, potato-dextrose-agar, cellulose-agar, Sabouraud-dextrose-agar) to identify conditions that promote mycotoxin production. Using LC-MS/MS, we have quantified stachybotrylactam and all S-type specific macrocyclic trichothecenes (satratoxin G, H, F, roridin E, L-2, verrucarin J). All five media supported a comparable fungal growth and sporulation at 25 °C in the dark. The highest concentrations of macrocyclic trichothecenes were detected on potato-dextrose-agar or cellulose-agar. Malt-extract-agar let to an intermediate and glucose-yeast-peptone-agar and Sabouraud-dextrose-agar to a poor mycotoxin production. These data demonstrate that the mycotoxin production clearly depends on the composition of the respective medium. Our findings provide a starting point for further studies in order to identify individual components that either support or repress the production of mycotoxins in S. chartarum.}},
  author       = {{Ulrich, Sebastian and Schäfer, Cornelius}},
  booktitle    = {{Journal of Fungi}},
  issn         = {{2309-608X}},
  keywords     = {{Stachybotrys, genotype, macrocyclic trichothecenes, stachybotrylactam}},
  number       = {{3}},
  publisher    = {{MDPI }},
  title        = {{{Toxin Production by Stachybotrys chartarum Genotype S on Different Culture Media}}},
  doi          = {{10.3390/jof6030159}},
  volume       = {{6}},
  year         = {{2020}},
}

@misc{12971,
  abstract     = {{The genus Stachybotrys produces a broad diversity of secondary metabolites, including macrocyclic trichothecenes, atranones, and phenylspirodrimanes. Although the class of the phenylspirodrimanes is the major one and consists of a multitude of metabolites bearing various structural modifications, few investigations have been carried out. Thus, the presented study deals with the quantitative determination of several secondary metabolites produced by distinct Stachybotrys species for comparison of their metabolite profiles. For that purpose, 15 of the primarily produced secondary metabolites were isolated from fungal cultures and structurally characterized in order to be used as analytical standards for the development of an LC-MS/MS multimethod. The developed method was applied to the analysis of micro-scale extracts from 5 different Stachybotrys strains, which were cultured on different media. In that process, spontaneous dialdehyde/lactone isomerization was observed for some of the isolated secondary metabolites, and novel stachybotrychromenes were quantitatively investigated for the first time. The metabolite profiles of Stachybotrys species are considerably influenced by time of growth and substrate availability, as well as the individual biosynthetic potential of the respective species. Regarding the reported adverse effects associated with Stachybotrys growth in building environments, combinatory effects of the investigated secondary metabolites should be addressed and the role of the phenylspirodrimanes re-evaluated in future research.}},
  author       = {{Jagels, Annika and Lindemann, Viktoria and Ulrich, Sebastian and Gottschalk, Christoph and Cramer, Benedikt and Hübner, Florian and Gareis, Manfred and Humpf, Hans-Ulrich}},
  booktitle    = {{Toxins}},
  issn         = {{2072-6651}},
  keywords     = {{Stachybotrys spp., metabolite profiles, LC-MS/MS, satratoxins, phenylspirodrimanes, stachybotrychromenes, biosynthetic production}},
  number       = {{3}},
  publisher    = {{MDPI}},
  title        = {{{Exploring Secondary Metabolite Profiles of Stachybotrys spp. by LC-MS/MS}}},
  doi          = {{10.3390/toxins11030133}},
  volume       = {{11}},
  year         = {{2019}},
}

@misc{12977,
  abstract     = {{Stachybotrys (S.) spp. are omnipresent cellulolytic molds. Some species are highly toxic owing to their ability to synthesize various secondary metabolites such as macrocyclic trichothecenes or hemolysins. The reliable identification of Stachybotrys at species level is currently limited to genome-based identification. This study aimed to establish a fast and reliable MALDI-TOF MS identification method by optimizing the pre-analytical steps for protein extraction for subsequent generation of high-quality fingerprint mass spectra. Eight reference strains of the American Type Culture Collection and the Technical University of Denmark were cultivated in triplicate (biological repetitions) for 2 days in malt extract broth. The mycelia (1.5 ml) were first washed with 75 % ethanol and an additional washing step with dimethyl sulfoxide (10 %) was added to remove unspecific low weight masses. Furthermore, mycelia were broken with roughened glass beads in formic acid (70 %) and acetonitrile. The method was successfully applied to a total of 45 isolates of Stachybotrys originating from three different habitats (indoor, feed, and food samples; n = 15 each): Twenty-seven isolates of S. chartarum and 18 isolates of S. chlorohalonata could be identified by MALDI-TOF MS. The data obtained exactly matched those obtained by genome-based identification. The mean score values for S. chartarum ranged from 2.509 to 2.739 and from 2.148 to 2.622 for S. chlorohalonata with a very good reproducibility: the relative standard deviations were between 0.3 % and 6.8 %. Thus, MALDI-TOF MS proved to be a fast and reliable alternative to identification of Stachybotrys spp. by nucleotide amplification and sequencing.}},
  author       = {{Ulrich, Sebastian and Biermaier, Barbara and Bader, Oliver and Wolf, Georg and Straubinger, Reinhard K. and Didier, Andrea and Sperner, Brigitte and Schwaiger, Karin and Gareis, Manfred and Gottschalk, Christoph}},
  booktitle    = {{  Analytical & bioanalytical chemistry : a merger of Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry, Analusis and Quimica analitica}},
  issn         = {{1618-2650}},
  keywords     = {{Stachybotrys spp, MALDI-TOF MS, Mass spectrometry, Filamentous fungi}},
  number       = {{27}},
  pages        = {{7565--7581}},
  publisher    = {{Springer}},
  title        = {{{Identification of Stachybotrys spp. by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry}}},
  doi          = {{10.1007/s00216-016-9800-9}},
  volume       = {{408}},
  year         = {{2016}},
}